Modernization an Example by

Modernization by Expert Jayjay1 | 14 Dec 2016 How does modernization manifest itself in U.S. society? Need essay sample on "Modernization" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed The concept of modernization is one that encompasses the idea of a shift in the type of economy and the location of the workforce. It involves the development of the society from farming and domestically driven economies to ones that are driven by industrialization and characterized by a large population of urban dwellers who facilitate the industrial workforce. This type of shift necessarily takes with it a high level of rural-urban migration. It also involves a shift from home employment to factory employment and the development of large organizations. Undergraduates Frequently Tell EssayLab specialists:I'm not in the mood to write my paper. Because I want to spend time with my friendsProfessional writers suggest: Get Your Essay Before The DeadlineCheap Essay Writing Service Write My Essay Custom Writing Custom Writing Reviews Cheap Custom Writing Service According to Max Weber, modernization is a phenomenon that is largely in opposition to tradition (Bellah, 1999). Social psychological theories have posited a certain relationship between the economic development and modernization of a country on the one hand, and the way in which its power dynamic is structured on the other (Inkeles, 1972). From the changes that occur as a result of modernization often follow certain socio-political trends that necessitate a shift in the relationships among those persons who live within that society. This shift has a significant effect on how power is exerted between persons who perform in different traditional roles. The manifestation is in a lessening of the close-contact social relationships between inpiduals (such as family members and religious leaders) and, conversely, an upsurge in what might be termed secondary relationships (such as employee-boss relationships). This has come about as a direct result of the modernization that has occurred in several countries, of which the United States is a major representative. What are the consequences of modernization? Modernization has necessarily led to the creation of large organizations which are often concentrated in dense urban centers. These organizations are significant in the positions that they hold within the economic sector. They represent the entities that control the major portion of the wealth created within the nation, and as a result, have tended toward the exertion of more and more influence over the actions of inpiduals who depend upon them financially (Inkeles, 1972). Because of their role in training people to fill money-earning positions, educators too have noticed an increase in their influence compared with that of parents and even religious leaders, and this has also occurred as a result of modernization (1972). As this has taken place, these same inpiduals have demonstrated that such primary relationships as parental and sibling relationships have begun to influence their lives and actions to a decreasing extent. It is this that has been the major driving force behind the shift of power evident in the post-industrial era of modernization (Zhang & Thomas, 1994). Is modernization a world-wide trend? While the extent to which it occurs does vary depending on the culture of the society, this evidence of modernization can be seen in all the developed countries and in many developing countries (Inkeles, 1972; Zhang & Thomas, 1994). The developed countries of the world all demonstrate an explosion of corporations and urbanization since the industrialization that occurred within the 19th century. Despite the distance between European countries such as France or Britain and the United States, the social, economic and geographic structure of the society demonstrates how modernization trends have designated urbanization as being the most practical method of facilitating the post-industrial explosion of co-operative commerce. What such countries also have in common is a wealth of inpiduals who break (or slacken) ties of proximity to their families in order to make connections within the corporate world. The influx of persons into urban centers has created such conditions in which anonymity is widespread and people are held less closely to the standards and traditions of their parents. Conformity, as a result, has become far less evident in the behaviors of inpiduals, especially the youth in developed and even developing countries. However, in such countries as China where political and academic leaders had already exerted a high level of influence over inpiduals, this trend has necessarily been less evident (Zhang & Thomas, 1994). Is modernization likely to continue in the U.S.? The likelihood of modernization to continue in the United States seems very high. The modernization trends described above have been witnessed in the historical development of the United States and much of the wider world. The future of modernization in this country can therefore be gauged from the progress of the power relations that exist between persons in this society. Modernization has also proven itself to be effective in the financial empowerment of not just the corporate moguls but also of the countless inpiduals that work for them (Zhang & Thomas, 1994). Furthermore, though many urban centers of industrialism do exist across the country, the nation cannot be said to be completely saturated, as still more persons exist that continue to make themselves available for employment within these centers. In addition to these persons, rural people continue to flock to urbanized areas. Also contributing to this continued trend of modernization is the fact that the resources within the United States that are used to facilitate this (though finite) have not yet been completely consumed, and non-indigenous resources can be obtained from other countries. In light of this, entrepreneurs are likely to continue creating new manufacturing businesses that will grow up into corporations. These are likely in turn to expand their operations into new areas that are likely to grow into new urban centers. Which theorist best reflects your perceptions of modernization? Max Webers theory of modernization as one that is in conflict with tradition does appear to hold up to scrutiny when viewed in a practical light. The breaking of ties with ones family that occurs on such a large scale in rural areas (upon inpidual migration to urban centers) appears to facilitate subsequent breaks with traditions of the family. Also, the distance over which parents and other primary relations have now to exert their influence does point toward a reduction in the power that such relations have over inpiduals. In moving from parent, home and town to the sphere of influence of (and to dependence on) of the industrial leaders (corporate bosses), people adjust their focuses to conform to the wishes of those who have the ability to influence their financial security. Educators too share this increased level of influence, it would seem, because of the emphasis placed on education for improving ones quality of life. While modernization is not inherently politically, socially, or traditionally influential, Weber seems to be right in his suggestion that the phenomenon creates a context in which those persons who have operated in traditional roles of influence lose their power. Yet it seems also to have created for the inpidual a situation of freedom and anonymity (especially in urban centers) in which those who choose may release themselves even further from those traditions that had once dictated how they live. References Bellah, R. M. Cultural identity and Asian modernization. Cultural Identity and Modernization in Asian Countries. Institute for Japanese Culture and Classics, Kokugakuin University.Available: http://www2.kokugakuin.ac.jp/ijcc/wp/cimac/bellah.html Inkeles, A (1972). Modernizing influences: Causes and consequences of inpidual change insix developing countries. Centro-Sociale, 19, 106-108. Zhang, J. Modernization theory revisited: a cross-cultural study ofadolescent conformity to significant others in mainland China, Taiwan, and the USA.Adolescence. Winter. Available:http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2248/is_n116_v29/ai_16477245/pg_1

First Crusade Art and Architecture

First Crusade Art and Architecture Introduction The First Crusade which took place between 1096 and 1099 was an expedition of western Christian military personnel to reclaim their holy lands that had been taken by Muslims after conquering Levant. It commenced in 1095 when Pope Urban called people in response to an appeal that had been made by Byzantine Emperor (Gabrieli 41).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on First Crusade Art and Architecture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More He had requested the Western people to assist him in fighting the Turks who were propelling invasions. From this initial goal, there arose another goal of recapturing Jerusalem from the hands of Islam which became the main goal. This essay will focus on First Crusade art and architecture. The Genesis of the First Crusade Following the conquest of England by the Normans, England and France became even stronger as compared to the time of Charlemagne. Their kings and queens started laying strategies of conquering the Mediterranean and improving the Roman Empire. They were particularly interested in capturing Jerusalem which was referred to as the city of Jesus Christ (Hillenbrand 54). The city was under the rule of Islamic Fatimids but Normans wanted to take it from them. In 1095 AD, a famous speech was given by Pope Urban at Clermont, Southern France. In his speech, he made a clarion call for people to get armed and move on to reclaim Jerusalem from the Fatimids. People ranging from small children to adults unanimously agreed hearkened to the call and they all wanted to go and fight. The enthusiasm was so high that a number of groups started their journey to Jerusalem way before the main group was constituted. They were strongly convicted that once they were in Jerusalem, God would destroy the doors of Jerusalem hence there was no need for them to have weapons or to get involved in any fight. Some of the people in the groups did not even bother to car ry money for themselves. On the way, majority discovered that the journey was not as easy as they had expected and most of them died before they got to their destination. One group deemed the journey to Jerusalem to go and fight the Fatimids as an impossible mission hence they decided to stop In Germany where they started fighting the Jews. Many Jews were robbed of their property by the crusaders and killed for the simple reason that they were not Christians Styles of Art during First Crusade During the period of the First Crusade, different styles of art were produced by the Crusaders. During this period, there are two artistic appearances that were most popular. The first one is Romanesque while the other one is Gothic.Advertising Looking for critical writing on art? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The military Crusaders were not actively involved in matters concerning art and most of their artistic impressions wer e destroyed after the collapse of their kingdoms hence very few survive today. One of the most sterling art styles associated with the Crusaders is the Crusader castles which were admired for their beauty. They came up with Byzantine methods of fortifying their cities with castles which were the largest ever witnessed. There was a great artistic influence of the Crusaders from the places they captured towards the end of 11th century. Byzantine Art and the Islamic Art were the most popular art styles found in Crusader states although there were other forms of indigenous art. The indigenous forms of art were incorporated with the other forms of art that the Crusaders acquired from Europe. Crusader art just like the historical background of the Crusader kingdoms is categorized into two or three periods. The first period was during the first crusade which led to the bloody recapture of Jerusalem and other Northern states. Art and Architecture during the First Crusade In the Byzantine Em pire, art and architecture started developing as early as the fifth century. First Crusade architecture is characterized by many square based domes, spires, round arches and mosaics which were made of glass. The art and architecture designs started in Constantinople and spread in the Christian world until Constantinople was taken by Turks. The most outstanding art during the First Crusade is the dome which was used in covering plans for tombs and churches with square and polygon shapes. The placing of a large number of domes in one building is contrasted with Romanesque design which basically involved use of vaulted roofs. There is no clear separation between Byzantine Art and Early Christian art. Byzantine Concrete and Brickwork Initially, construction using bricks was used by the Romans but it was adopted by the Byzantines in the First Crusade. The mixture of concrete and brickwork was finished first before being allowed to settle then slabs of marble were added. This use of indep endent component parts is a style of architecture that was used by the Byzantines. Brickwork was in addition used for decorating external caprices and internal decoration where it covered mosaic and marble decorations. The Byzantines used a lot of effort in preparing bricks which were used in military and home architecture (Gabrieli 366).The normal bricks made by Byzantines during the First Crusade were similar to those of Romans with similar dimensions and size. The general application of bricks made it necessary for great care to be exercised during the preparation of mortar which comprised of sand and lime.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on First Crusade Art and Architecture specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The decorations in external facades were determined by the patterns of facing bricks. The arrangement of the bricks was not always horizontal but at times it took the form of meander frets. The Byzant ines also tried to beautify the exterior parts of bricks that were rough by applying stone bands and other arches used in decoration. The walls of the buildings were covered with sheets of marble in the inside mixed with domes. Domes The dome which was mostly used traditionally in the East turned to be an important architecture component among the Byzantines in the First Crusade. This was a combination of construction of domes and the classical columnar art. Different types of domes were put on square compartments in the form of pendetives as opposed to their use in Roman Architecture where they were only used in circular or structures with the shape of a polygon. Domes were mostly constructed using bricks or light stones like pumice. It is believed that domes among the Byzantines were constructed in the absence of centering or support by using enormous flat bricks. In the lower part of the domes is where windows were placed. The Byzantine churches during the First Crusade were char acterized by small domes surrounding a central big dome. This made the vaults and domes clearly seen from the external hence the Byzantine style of art has an exterior which is very close to the interior. Early Christian art influences Early Christian art is said to have emerged owing to the importance that was attached to images in the culture of Romans. As Christianity continued to get new members, many Christians new the importance of images from their past cultural inclinations hence they were willing to continue with their culture. For example, the Romans changed some of their cultural activities such as cremation to inhumation. As a result, Romans started having tombs carved from marble to bury their dead. Those who converted to Christianity wanted the same for their people hence this became a great influence of early Christian art. Geological factors are also said to have had an indirect influence on early Christian art and architecture. The remains of Roman buildings were a source of materials for early Christian architecture (Madden 25).This had a great influence on both the construction and the decorative aspects. Columns and various features of architecture were converted into the emergent Basilican churches. Another influence of early Christian art is the religious history. Christianity was the inspiring force behind some of the greatest architectural constructions. The purpose of churches for Christians was to have a place to shelter after making prayers. This led to various places being adopted for worship. Consequently, there was disappearance of pagan temples before churches started being constructed.Advertising Looking for critical writing on art? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conclusion The First Crusade is one of the most remarkable historical events which have remained in record for the longest period of time. The Crusaders succeeded in capturing Jerusalem together with other cities located near the Mediterranean coast. They made settlements in their new land and became kings of Jerusalem. This made the First Crusade a big success for the Europeans and a failure for the Fatimids. Apart from the success of the Crusades, art and architecture are important aspects of the First Crusade. This period was characterized by architectural designs such as domes concrete, brickwork and sculptures. Gabrieli, Francesco. Arab historians of the Crusades. California: University of California Press, 1984.Print Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades: Islamic perspectives. New York: Routledge, 2000.Print Madden, Thomas. The new concise history of the Crusades. Oxford: Rowman Littlefield, 2005.Print

Ethics in Journalism Essay Sample

Ethics in Journalism Essay Sample Ethics in Journalism Essay Journalism is one of the most important fields of practice that every person should have to consider with their practice and activities. This is the application of news reporting made by journalists to a certain scenario or circumstance that is relevant to the community. The goal of journalism is to provide awareness to the public regarding the trending news and latest updates our society’s activities. In this case, valuing the significance of news reporting correspond to ethical applications for every journalist and news networks for displaying and reporting relevant information to the public. The main purpose is to inform the public regarding a scenario that might cause a risk to the involved community. The reason behind is to prevent any risks or hazards that are causing a stress to the society. Ethics in journalism comes with a responsible way of relaying information to the public. One of the main reasons is to prevent conflicting interests with the public as well as with the local government units. Every detailed news report comes with the principle of veracity because the public needs to know the realness of the information being published online. Responsible publication of articles and news reporting comes with a professional responsibility by the journalists. The reason behind is to ensure that the productivity of the news becomes reliable to the public. Relating information according to their interest provides a reason for the society to render their trust with the journalist who is responsible for reporting certain news. If the journalist continues to provide a professional way of publishing relevant news, they start to gain respect from their fellow colleague as well as by the public. We usually observe that numerous fake news reports are now proliferating over the internet. Examples are news about a celebrity or a political icon that passed away recently. However, the authenticity of the article published online fails to verify it because the person who published the article is not an official journalist. Journalists sometimes are at risk for committing plagiarized news reporting due to the fact that information that has been reported has similar content with the reporter’s news report. This is the reason why news networks established a syndicated reporting to ensure that copyright infringements will not affect major news networks responsible for promoting news and latest updates. Ethics in journalism applies with the respect of privacy for individuals or respondents who do not want to have their names or face displayed by the camera and the computer graphics expert of the news network. One of the most important ethical applications of journalism is to report a certain scenario that does not violate the rights of other individuals. The reason behind is to prevent any corruption of viewer’s minds as they are keen on listening or watching the news to become aware of any relevant information that affects their personal issues. Examples are racism, pornography, profanity, graphic image or videos, discrimination, hate speech, verbal arguments, or intentional segregation. News reporters proofread their articles or news before publishing it on the public space to prevent any risk of getting involved in lawsuits. Some journalists are usually summoned by courts for getting involved in libel or slander lawsuits filed by the complainant who was offended by the article or the news recently reported to the public (Ames, 2011). Reference Ames, Roger T. (2011).  Confucian Role Ethics: A Vocabulary. University of HawaiÊ »i Press.  ISBN  978-0-8248-3576-7.

Wine Industry Association of WA Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Wine Industry Association of WA - Lab Report Example Today Australia is having more than one thousand wineries and about twenty thousand wine-industry workers are living in the country.† 1 If someone thinks the wine as a romantic unchangeable institution, he can be forgiven, but it is not true. The wine has always been influencing the market.† 2 sustain the global reputation. The organization is having 9 main wine producing regions and few sub-regions. Western Australia produces merely 3 percent of the Australia’s wine but astonishingly nearly 30 percent of its premium quality wines are produced in this region.† 3 The education centers are the new concept to pull up the sales. The top management takes the decisions and the lower level staffs follow that. The board of the Directors includes the top management team like producer [category A], Vice president Grower, treasurer producer, producer [category B], distributer, general manager and some other top ranked officers. Second level staffs are basically marketing and even manager, sales manager, export manager. These are basically the internal structures of the organization. Some volunteers are there to do exhibitions and trade fare and to manage the wine education centers. of the whole nation are produced in the Western Australian wine industry. South Australian Wine industries are very much reputed for the high volume of wine they produce. However, few of the promising competitors are Wine makers federation of Australia, Wine Grape Growers Association, Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation and Grape & Wine Research & Development Corporation. Most of these competitors are having their own wine education centers. The macro-environment is the larger view of the environment in which the particular wine industry is performing their acts. PESTEL analysis is very much important to understand the socio-economic impact on the industry. Economic Factors: These factors are

Gambling and Increasing crime Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Gambling and Increasing crime - Research Paper Example Whether the idea that legalizing gambling will actually help to decrease the crime rate and if it is itself a good idea to do so. There are many sides to this argument and while some critics outright claim that crime is caused by gambling there are many others who will claim otherwise. Some hold that gambling does not cause crime but helps to better society. Gambling has been a part of society for a very long time and it can take many forms and shapes. There are various definitions of the idea which is more or less taken to mean the betting of money or other valuables on the outcome of a certain event. In 1566 England, for the first time, chartered a lottery and by 1620 there was regular gambling or wagering on dog races in England. However, in 1621 the first form of restrictions were placed on gambling and then in 1815 there were licenses handed over to the city of New Orleans for gambling and by 1827 John Davis had opened a fully functional Casino in the city that was to cater to the gambling needs of the rich and elite. The history of gambling continues but later on down the road corruption and crime began to mix with the sport and it became more of a problem for the governments of the world and there were moves to eradicate it. Yet some resisted and there was a change in strategy and it was thought to better legalize and hand out li censes to casinos rather than shelve gambling and force it to be taken up underground. Many states in America resisted this move and even in 1981 the New York legislature was not ready to authorize casinos to operate in the city (Thompson, xvii). The practice has also been on the rise not only in the United States but all over the world (Momper, Delva and Grogan-Kaylor, 7). Gambling itself is not taken to be a bad practice as many people do it. It is a particularly popular in Britain in the form of betting on race horses and even lotteries are a gamble of sorts

Comparing Apocalypse Now and Heart of Darkness :: Compare Contrast Comparison

Comparing Apocalypse Now and Heart of Darkness Francis Coppola’s movie Apocalypse Now was inspired by the world famous Joseph Conrad novel Heart of Darkness. A comparison and contrast can be made between the two. Both have similar themes but entirely different settings. Heart of Darkness takes place on the Congo River in the Heart of Africa, while Apocalypse Now is set in Vietnam. "Heart of Darkness , which follows closely the actual events of Conrad's Congo journey, tells of the narrator's fascination by a mysterious white man, Kurtz, who, by his eloquence and hypnotic personality, dominates the brutal tribesmen around him. Full of contempt for the greedy traders who exploit the natives, the narrator cannot deny the power of this figure of evil who calls forth from him something approaching reluctant loyalty."[1] The main characters in both have the same general personalities but have different names. Of course, Kurtz is Kurtz, Willard parallels Marlow, and the American photojournalist corresponds to the Russian Harlequin. Willard is a lieutenant for the US Army and Marlow is a captain of a steamboat of an ivory company. The first images of Willard and Marlow differ to some degree. The movie begins with Willard lying in an apartment room lost from reality with the song ‘The End’ playing by The Doors. He is haunted by his earlier deeds and he is getting very drunk. Willard smashes the mirror while fighting himself and cuts his hand. Marlow is portrayed as a wanderer of the sea. The narrator described him to somewhat of a hero. Their mission is to find Kurtz and take him down at all costs. In both stories Kurtz is a psychotic rebel, worshipped as a god, who threatens the stability of his original unit, but in one it is an ivory trading company and in the other it is the US Army. Kurtz, who had begun his assignment a man of great idealism and the highest morals, had become strangely savage. Tribes of natives worship the man who lives in a hut surrounded by fence posts topped with recently acquired human skulls.

Native American V.S. African American Education Essay

In assessing the differences in education between African Americans and Natives Americans in the U. S. , the ideals shared by western culture towards these respective minority groups must be taken into account. It is almost as though a triangular relationship is taking place, one in which both parties are a direct byproduct of their interactions with the third. The way in which the American society has viewed American Indians in contrast to members of the black community since 1900 has a dramatic effect on the way Universities and Western society interacts with individual members of the respective groups. Research shows that despite an underlying push among college faculty to better support Native Americans, and even the multiple campaigns for young white western women to take on marriages with Native American in a hope to integrate them and buy their land, what Africans Americans lack in the benefits of being awarded this hospitality and helping hand by the U. S. government they make up for in a willingness to further integrate into American society than the American Indian. The fact of the matter is both Native Americans and African Americans have demonstrated difficulty in transitioning from their respective cultures into the western society, but the possibility for Native American education is virtually crippled by the lack of representation within the western world. Public School System From 1980 throughout the 1990’s, American Indian public schooling was at risk. The Indian Education Act of 1972, also known as Title IV of public law, was the only federal legislation that provided funding for all American Indians and Native Alaskan students in public schools. By 1995, the budget had fallen to 1$ and the entire program was in risk of being shut down until President Clinton vetoed the bill and re-established the bill as a proper source of funding for potential Native American college students. To this day, this act serves as the sole source of federal funding for native American students in the public school system accounting for the very poor quality educational facilities bordering and residing in Native American reservations (Banton, 1998). In 1954, Brown v. Board of Education ruled that segregated education was unconstitutional (Savitt, 2000). In 1963, it was found in the case of Jackson v. the Pasadena City School District that Pasadena manipulated school boundaries in order to maintain racial segregation at Washington Junior High. Washington Junior High was located in a neutral zone, many white parents started moving their children out of the school in the early 1940’s. The result of this was a shift from a 10 percent black population in 1946, to 52 percent in 1958, and then 84 percent in 1964 (Savitt, 2000). Jackson v. the Pasadena City School District marked the courts awareness of this overlooked segregation in the school system. The image of the black America has evolved over the past couple hundred years, since the end of slavery. The media has had a major influence on this as well. This is the same for all races in American society. Joane Nagel addresses this concept in her essay on American Indian Ethnic Renewal. She claims ethnic identity is a trans-historic concept. Scientist, near the end of World War II, classified ethnicity as something that would eventually fade away with evolution, but their theory was continuously opposed by the ethnic resurgence of each generation. People were reclaiming their ethnic identity in newly changing ways. Nagel’s essay argues that even grounds for the definition of ‘blackness’ is up for debate. Where whites can freely choose whether to be considered ethnic or not, blacks don’t have the same choice. On top of this, the media characterizes what it means to be black, and this is done from a white perspective. But Nagel argues that the identification of blackness is no longer as easy a label to assign. This is especially true if one tries to characterize race based solely on the statistics. It is true that the majority of the minorities in this country are in the low income bracket. It’s almost like the definition of ‘ethnic’ has been replaced with ‘poor’. Racial stratification that existed in the U. S. at the beginning of the last century also deprived its colored citizens from the access to the most valuable resources the American society had, from the education, proper medical treatment etc. To make the Afro-Americans believe in the uniqueness of the whites they developed ridiculous theories of the mental or physical prevalence of their race. (Banton, 1998)Despite of the principles about the equality of all of the society’s members that are declared in the contemporary society nowadays, the phenomenon of discrimination still exists in our country. From one viewpoint it is natural for people to treat those who surround them regarding to their age, gender, religious beliefs, physical condition or some other parameters, but when these peculiarities are used for to determine the person’s rights or regulate his or her freedom of action and choice, it created huge problems in interpersonal and social communication, and other processes. Tally’s Corner is the sociological interpretation of the culture of negro street-corner men. Elliot Liebow sets out to show the hypocrisies that lead black men to this circumstance. The study is carried out in Washington D. C. The key argument posed by Liebow is that black males are incapable of attaining jobs because they lack education (1967). He also argues that this is a cycle that inevitably results in a trans-generational marginalization of the black race. On top of this, he argues that the white middle class are unrelenting with their methods of depriving black advancement in American society. Knowledge of this incites many blacks to take dead-end jobs, or to settle for mediocrity in the face of adversity. A large number of black males in America find themselves forced to take jobs that offer no security, or socioeconomic growth. He also argues that many blacks are not very literate and therefore left behind in cultural revolutions like the information age. The main thesis of Liebow’s argument is that black men lack self fulfillment (1967). Liebow’s conclusion is that men can only find self-fulfillment as family providers. He credits their diversion from mainstream society to many different aspects, the fear of failure, the contentment with mediocrity, and the fear that loved one’s will abandon them. This is a very depressing and pessimistic view, considering that the family structure is more prevalently a support system in most cultures. Liebow tributes this difference in family ideals to the conflicted relationship between black men and women (1967). The income that these men bring in is a direct result of their education; ironically, their income will also directly effect the quality of education their children have. Dually, very little research takes into account the affect social environment has on the education of inner city blacks. In their study The Roles of Stress and Coping in Explaining Gender Differences in Risk for Psychopathology Among African American Urban Adolescents Ginger Carlson and Kathryn Grant assess the relations among gender for 1,200 low income African American urban adolescents. In this study girls reported having more symptoms than boys, and having a higher tendency to internalize their responses to stress. Boy stress stemmed from major events, they experienced more exposure to violence, and they had more sexual stressors than girls. Boy in gangs specifically reported a higher rate of sexual stressors and having substance abuse problems (Kazdin & Johnson, 1994; Loeber & Keenan, 1994; Overbeek, Vollebergh, Meeus, Engels, & Luijpers, 2001). Researchers were also adamant to pint out that ethnic minority groups, such as African Americans, are highly underrepresented in gender study literature, which made this collection of information that much more valuable. They found that the lower socioeconomic status and urban environment increased the frequency of stressors as well as the intensity of stressful circumstances. Gender differences in stress, coping, and psychological symptoms in adolescents have been well documented with White, middle-class samples. Results suggest that female adolescents have a higher incidence of psychopathology than do male adolescents (Romano, Tremblay, Vitaro, Zoccolillo, & Pagani, 2001; Steinhausen, 1992). This gender difference appears to be fully accounted for by gender differences in internalizing problems, such as depression and anxiety. (Carlson & Grant, 2001) Dually this inclination towards social anxiety it was reported made African American female adolescents more prone to the insecurities that peer pressure to have sexual intercourse at a younger age only enhancing the threat of catching sexually transmitted diseases, as a well as contributing to emotional distraction from education. A wide range of theorists and politicians have used the American educational system as a platform on which to gain civil approval. There is a popular consensus that income designates the quality of one’s education in America. This state of socioeconomic prejudice has a detrimental effect on the face of American society. The Ebonics controversy in America has developed into a major conflict over the years. It has become a more serious concern within the public school system. The complex where the nation’s school systems lower their expectations of black youth to coincide with the patterns of Ebonics, the word used to refer to African American Vernacular English, has resulted in an epidemic where blacks graduate from High School reading three grade levels below their white counterparts (Griffin, 2006). For the multiple number of theories that attempt to explain this phenomenon, very few have been able to counter the adverse culture that has developed in America as a product of Ebonics being considered a valid dialect. A major cause of the low expectations placed on black youth in schools can partly be credited to those doing the research, as Kimberly Griffin points out in her article Striving for Success: A Qualitative Exploration of Competing Theories of High-Achieving Black College Students’ Academic Motivation, when she says, research on the academic performance of Black students has focused on low-achievers, framing their academic motivation as maladaptive and driven by externally (e. g. , competition or compliance) rather than internally (e. g. , love of learning) generated forces (Griffin, 2006). This heavy focus on those blacks who have low quality achievement, has led to a neglect in the understanding of what drives the higher achieving students to be successful. Findings show that self-determination theory, socio-cognitive theory, and attribution theory cannot individually explain the motivation of these Black high-achievers. Instead, a multidimensional framework that incorporates all three models and that highlights internal and external sources of motivation best accounts for these students’ experiences (Griffin, 2006). Griffin goes on to cite an interview with a young black student that was less affluent than others. The dialogue reveals that the pressure of stereotypes and low expectations has a weighing effect on the level of effort and achievement that black students have in the class room. This is a stigma that is present whether the student is of a lower or higher class, but the lower the class of the student the even heavier the stereotypes are that weigh on them. A wide range of theorists and politicians have used the American educational system as a platform on which to gain civil approval. There is a popular consensus that income designates the quality of one’s education in America. This state of socioeconomic prejudice has a detrimental effect on the face of American society. It can be argued that a single standard curriculum should be equally implemented and taught throughout the nation, and that this curriculum should be similar to the elite executive curriculum, which Jean Anyon identifies as the best education our country has to offer. Anyon’s article argues in favor of integrated curriculums to equalize the educational system. She feels that lower classes are being exploited; and instead of being substantially educated, the students are being herded into remedial jobs. In compliance with traditional standardized test laws, both public and private schools will be tested, whether they are in the poorest communities or the wealthiest. These will be the new tests to decide whether students carryover to the next grade, whether the schools remain in session, and whether certain children are awarded grants and scholarships. Authentic assessment asks that students acquire knowledge and be able to practice logic as apposed to just being able to regurgitate pre-fed facts. The main characteristics of these evaluations, is that they apply standardized test curriculum to real life circumstances. Authentic assessment is the product of a reform in education, and the ultimate realization that our educational system may not be serving the best interests of its students. This shift is to make standardized testing less drill oriented and applicable to what is expected will be necessary in the students’ adult life. These tests hold students to higher standards as well as create a growing body of accurate awareness pertaining to student learning. This way the teacher learns from the student as well. (Wiggins, 1990) Standardized testing has been long been viewed as the final equalizer for the American Education system. Every top student from every high school, regardless of where their schools rank academically, is given first priority to attend the top private and state Universities. America creates a myth in placing so much faith in these tests that proposes the best of society rise to the top. In all actuality, success on these tests is largely dependant on the quality of schooling provided by the country, or the amount of money one has to shell out on test preparation. In her essay, From Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work Jean Anyon observes the hypocrisies prevalent in the education system. One of her major points is that in the higher income classrooms the majority of the students’ parents are executives, and only 10% are minorities. A common finding in her research is that the working class schools lack the necessary materials and often enough faculty to be considered equal with the other school systems. Anyon also argues that the curriculums are different. Historically, the most efficient form of learning used in America, more so than even the textbook, is the field trip; this is also known as project based learning (B. I. E. , 2002). It is also a very expensive learning tool, which is why most lower class curriculums are deprived of it. Project based learning has a long lived tradition of learning through the implementation of field trips, labs, investigations and other projects. It is considered to be part of the American dream, as well as a substantial method of teaching. The premise backing this form of learning revolves around the idea that students will be more liable to gain interest in curriculum that they can connect to their surroundings. Just studying the work in a text can grow to be mundane. When she analyzes elementary and secondary classroom curriculums, she finds a methodology very different from what is inherent in Project based education. Anyon discovers that the majority of contemporary textbook instruction is designed for the working class. PBL programs are usually not supported in public schools because of the amount of funding they require. This discrepancy is usually applicable to public schools and whether one is located near high income housing or low income housing. This is a difficulty that both Native and African Americans share alike. Starting in elementary school on through high school, since the integration of the education system in 1950, minority students such as blacks, Native American and Hispanics, have been geared toward working class fields as opposed to handling positions of an executive nature. Current advancements in Project Based Learning and authentic assessment attempt to counter the herding of minority students into the lesser of what Anyon proposes are the two main types of learning in America. Jonathan Kozol describes the discrepancies between these two types of schooling in his interview with Marge Scherer. In the interview titled, On Savage Inequalities: A Conversation with Jonathan Kozol, he talks about his experience in St. Louis and how the schools in low income areas barely have money for water, while the schools near by in the wealthier districts could buy advanced school supplies as well as carryout project based learning, such as field trips (2005). Kozol credits this problem to the use of property tax to fund schools in low income areas. He states: we ought to finance the education of every child in America equitably, with adjustments made only for the greater or lesser needs of certain children. And that funding should all come from the collective wealth of our society, mainly from a steeply graduated progressive income tax. (Kozol, 2005) This particular tax could make project based learning more affordable, which would be the most influential step to improving classroom education. The most common contemporary example of PBL is dissecting insects and animals. It has become an American tradition and almost a right of passage in high school. Project Based Management has a very beneficial influence on the education of our country. One might wonder why it’s not the only curriculum used. The use of chaperones, instructional tools, and methods of transportation are often required and considered expensive. The benefit is that people tend to remember more from their field trips than textbook lessons and many of these labs require authentic assessment, which is good considering the new shift in standardized testing. The downfall is in the fact that authentic assessment is dependent on the student’s past experiences. This allows for some projects to result in the isolation of certain students. The inner city children are deprived because their school systems can’t afford implementing PBL curriculums. Chairperson of the Department of Education at Rutgers University, in her essay From Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work Jean Anyon analyzes the nature of underprivileged education (2006). Anyon argues that depending on their social class, different levels of educations are available to young people. This mostly applies to schools in different districts and social communities and it can particularly be seen in the difference between private and public schooling. To make the concept clear, she further applies this to a description of a kind of mental segregation happening within the classroom; in which, students sitting next to one another are rewarded differently solely based on their socioeconomic standing in the community. She does this by pointing out that, †¦students in different social-class backgrounds are rewarded for classroom behaviors that correspond to personality traits allegedly rewarded in the different occupational strata – the working classes for docility and obedience, the managerial classes for initiative and personal assertiveness. (Anyon, 2006) This is the key ideal of Anyon’s theory. An example of the theory at work can be seen in research that finds project based learning prepares students for more abstract assessment, and prepares them to handle real world situations, as opposed to those in the textbook. PBL is most prevalent in private and high income community public schools. This creates a system where the students taught in the private schools are taught to think independently in a rational but unconfined way, while the lower income children are only taught to follow instructions. These differing perspectives on education have had a controversial and conflicting history in America. Gary Colombo based much of his research on this conflict. Aware that the Constitution would be opposed by the working class, who made up the majority of the people, the construction of the deceleration and its signing were held in private. The media was used conceal the constitution’s actual goal, while at the same time to persuade people in its favor. Along with a literate media Colombo points out that the American government found it necessary, particularly during Thomas Jefferson’s presidency, to promote and finance a literate working class. It is Colombo’s view that the sole purpose of their education was to develop individuals who would maintain the nation (2005). These educated individuals were viewed as secondary to their task. This is the first sign in American history of education being used to exploit people for the benefit of the government. By identifying the failure of Thomas Jefferson to educate the Native American people, Colombo shows that American education was initially designed with absolutely no regard for the people. He best displays this conflict when he cites a letter written by a Native American to the President. †¦our ideas of this kind of education happen not to be the same with yours†¦several of our young people were formerly brought up at the college of the northern provinces they were instructed in all your sciences; but when they came back to us, they were bad runners; ignorant of every means of living in the woods; unable to bear either cold or hunger; knew neither how to build a cabin, take a deer, or kill an enemy†¦they were totally good for nothing. (Colombo, 2005) Here Colombo identifies that, quality in education is deemed only as good as its ability to assimilate one into the culture in which they live. This assimilation is not one that produces equal opportunity for its participants. As previously proven by Anyon, socioeconomic conditions impede this dream dramatically from coming into fruition. Anyon argues that today’s working class curriculums center more on teaching students to follow instructions rather than teaching them how to authentically assess problems (2006). It just so happens the majority of these working class group tend to be Black students. She undeniably proves that the children of higher income families are not taught in this fashion, and they are steered more towards developing skills in problem solving and decision making. If students are subject to the exact same nationwide testing, it is only just that they receive the same educational curriculums. Lower income students are being herded into remedial work, while the upper class students are being prepared for executive positions. This is an immoral practice, but there are risks that can occur if Anyon’s elitist curriculum is equally distributed throughout the country (2006). Everyone can not manage the corporation some have to toil for the sake of the company. The working class may potentially have a better understanding of executive duties, if Anyon’s curriculum is implemented (2006). With a greater appreciation for the business structure, working class employees may be educated enough to demand more benefits from their companies. The end result of implementing Anyon’s theory is that there will be a more diverse group of qualified candidates from which corporations select. This makes the face of corporate America as cultured as the nation it’s in, and it eliminates much of the disadvantaging prejudice that comes with elitism. This is proof that it is wise to utilize Anyon’s elite curriculum throughout all school systems. Universities & Extended Education In 2002, Native Americans made up less than 1% the student population enrolled in college, and most of them attended two year programs in tribal regions (Guillory & Wolverton, 2008). It is was also found that Native Americans reported having a low retention rate in American Universities, estimated as low as 15%. The statistics and the circumstance differing between Native Americans and African Americans in the their relationships with Western culture. While blacks have had a complex history with the United States, the history of Native Americans has been virtually non-existent. The relationship the black community has with western culture has a much different effect on the young black college student attending for the first time than the native American community backing the young American Indian student. Numerous studies of Native American students who attend mainstream colleges and universities suggest that factors such as precollege academic preparation, family support, supportive and involved faculty, institutional commitment, and maintaining an active presence in home communities and cultural ceremonies are crucial elements that impact these students’ ability and/or desire to persist in college. (Guillory & Wolverton, 2008) These concerns by the Native American student are no different from those of any other student from any other cultural background; the conflict arises when the ideals developed within the confines of the reservation contrast those in the outside world and the University. While African American communities, throughout the years, have had a history of political and social descent from the American government and western culture, they are still legally a part of America and by that rule of law they can only revolt so much without impeding their own away of life. Studies show that there is an overwhelming push by the Indian community in American reservations to stray from leaving the land and to avoid integration with the government. With over 304 American Indian reservations, the U. S. Federal government would just as easily prefer to give the land to the Indians for a decided value and then have them pay property tax. This is a tactic that has long been avoided by the Native American Tribes, since 1887, when the Dawes Act legislated wide-scale private ownership of reservation lands in the United States strictly for American Indians. The plan called for an allotted 80 acres to be given to each Native American from each respective Tribe. It was the job of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to make sure these allotted lands stayed in a trust for at least 25 years, after which Native American land owners would receive a patent for their land. The a fear that arose from this in many tribes was that the land would eventually be sold to non-Indian citizens run corporations or citizens, or that the tax on the land would be overwhelming for Tribal members who had no way of accruing income. The end result was a rejection of this proposal by native American Tribes. This only further exemplifies the nature of the relationship between Native Americans and the United States government. This inherent distrust of western culture is carried into the first year adjustment process for Native American students and makes it very difficult for them to integrate and eventually graduate from the program. In the article, It’s About Family: Native American Student Persistence in Higher Education, researchers asses barriers to degree completion as they relate to Native American students at Washington State University, the University of Idaho, and Montana State University (Guillory & Wolverton, 2008). And 2002 May Americans represented less than 1% of all students enrolled in college. Year to year persistence rates were uncertain, but throughout the years Native Americans have proven to have the lowest retention rate. The study points out that the lack of Native American faculty contributes to difficulty American Indians have in adjusting to Universities, but there has also been a recent push to train university faculty in better handling Native American. While this is also often true for African American students, it is very rare in the modern era that one can find a University where there are absolutely no black faculty, or at least some form of Black student organization for community support. The major conflict that arises for a Native American student in an American University stems from an unwillingness or incapability to integrate into western culture. While the same could be argued in reference to blacks, American Indians lack the same level of community support that is present in western society for black Americans. There are very few clubs in colleges for American Indians, very few organizations to address American Indian issues. On the other hand, because there is such a miniscule presence of Native Americans in the public school system, there is an unsaid push by school officials as well as western society to incorporate Native Americans into popular culture. This push is not promoted for the sake of bettering the American Indians In her article Margins of Acceptability, Katherine Ellinghaus assess the impact of reservation ideals on the ability of the Native American student to cross-over into the culture of Western Universities, but she points out America’s desire to claim land reserved for Native Americans and incorporate them into American society inadvertently created a need for these men and women to be adopted into the culture. Methods of promoting young men and women to marry Native Americans on college campuses and in different communities was widely encouraged due to this need. This is something that is very different from how the interracial relationships between blacks and whites are perceived. The majority of African American physicians graduated from universities specifically designated for blacks. There was only a small number of northern universities that accepted black candidates for medical degrees following the Civil War (Savitt, 2000). Following emancipation white northern missionary groups and former abolitionists, specifically the American Baptist Home Mission Society, American Missionary Association, and Freedmen’s Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church constructed a number of schools in the south to teach basic educational skills to blacks. These schools basically taught former slaves practical job skills, literacy and eventually extended their teachings to medical education. The most distinguished and successful of these medical schools were in universities such has Howard in Washington, D. C., Leonard Medical,School of Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Meharry Medical College in Nashville (Savitt, 2000). During the late 1880’s, the majority of the African American population resided in the south, those blacks who studied to be physicians in missionaries eventually followed in the path of the white medical tradition and constructed their own medical school proprieties. The first of these institutions was Louisville National Medical College in 1888, then Hannibal Medical College (Memphis, 1889), and Chattanooga National Medical College (1899) (Savitt, 2000). The ability of African American students to establish early on success in the medical world and then return to establish black run institutions is prime example of the difference between the reluctance of Native Americans to participate in education and the opportunities created for themselves. Black medical schools encountered many difficulties that their white counterparts did not. They also faced problems that black missionary schools didn’t have to confront. Missionary and proprietary school officials had equal ability and opportunity to raise money and garner community support among whites and blacks, but missionary schools have the advantage of being connected to a major university and being able to benefit from the resources. Missionary schools also held the advantage of being connected with nationally known and respected church organizations, which also served well in gaining sympathy a mom white Northerners. Proprietary colleges on the other hand were isolated and independent. There were no missionary magazines to report on their successes or to provide them with free advertising. These up-starting universities also had very few wealthy alumni to help funding for classrooms or to pay faculty. Nevertheless, these minor steps are more like leaps compared to the Native American experience in the medical field. Of the small few who did manage to attend universities and graduate, the likely-hood of them going on to become medical partitions was largely impeded by a sacred adherence to the medicinal pr